Nice thread resurrection! I missed this one. This is my jam to a T.
Lens distortion can make balls appear as ovals and fall out of the bounds of a radius filter of the hough transform applied to circles.
For a fixed camera, finding the diamonds in the image can be used to make a transform to correct the lens aberrations. Using the safe assumption that the diamonds need to form four lines along the rails in an undistorted image. I am unaware of a standalone filter premade for this, but I haven't looked in a while.
With even intensity and hue illumination, color filters could be manually adjusted for ball identification for the solid balls. The stripes get trickier.